The prostate gland

What can go wrong with the prostate gland?

Colin SM, Metcalfe C, Donovan J, Lane JA, Davis M, Neal D, Hamdy F,
Martin RM. Associations of lower urinary tract symptoms with prostate-specific antigen levels, and screen detected localized and advanced prostate cancer: a case-control study nested within the UK based population ProtecT (Prostate testing for cancer and Treatment) study. BJU Int, 2008, 102 (10):1400-140

Crawford E D. Understanding the Epidemiology, Natural History and Key Pathways Involved in Prostate Cancer. 2009 Urology; 73:5A

Johansson J-E, Andren O, Andersson S O, Dickamn P W, Holmberg L, Magnuson A, Adami H O. Natural History of Early Localised Prostate Cancer, JAMA 2004; 291 (22) 2713-2719

NICE. The management of lower urinary tract symptoms in men. 2010 Prostate Cancer Risk Management Programme information for primary care: PSA testing in asymptomatic men. Evidence document January 2010

What is benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)?

Trueman P, Hood SC, Nayak US, Mrazek MF. Prevalence of lower urinary tract symptoms and self-reported diagnosed 'benign prostatic hyperplasia,' and their effect on quality of life in a community-based survey of men in the UK. BJU Int 1999; 83: 410-415.

Wei JT, Calhoun E, Jacobsen SJ. Urologic diseases in America project: benign prostatic hyperplasia. Journal of Urology 2005; 173: 1256-1261.

What is prostate cancer?

ISD Online. Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Survival data. Accessed 2010
Northern Ireland Cancer Registry. Cancer Incidence and Mortality. Accessed 2010
Office for National Statistics, Cancer Statistics registrations: Registrations of cancer diagnosed in 2007, England. Series MB1 no.38. 2010, National Statistics: London.
Welsh Cancer Intelligence and Surveillance Unit, Cancer Incidence in Wales. 2010

Crawford E D. Understanding the Epidemiology, Natural History and Key Pathways Involved in Prostate Cancer. 2009 Urology; 73:5A

Johansson J-E, Andren O, Andersson S O, Dickamn P W, Holmberg L, Magnuson A, Adami H O. Natural History of Early Localised Prostate Cancer, JAMA 2004; 291 (22) 2713-2719

Prostate Cancer Risk Management Programme information for primary care: PSA testing in asymptomatic men. Evidence document January 2010

Sakr WA, Grignon DJ, Haas GP, Heilbrun LK, Pontes JE, Crissman JD. Age and racial distribution of prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia. Eur Urol, 1996, 30(2):138-144.

What is my risk of developing prostate cancer?

Age
ISD Online. Cancer Incidence, Mortality and Survival data. Accessed 2010
Northern Ireland Cancer Registry. Cancer Incidence and Mortality. Accessed 2010
Office for National Statistics, Cancer Statistics registrations: Registrations of cancer diagnosed in 2007, England. Series MB1 no.38. 2010, National Statistics: London.
Welsh Cancer Intelligence and Surveillance Unit, Cancer Incidence in Wales. 2010

Family history
Dianat SS, Margreiter M, Eckersberger E, Finkelstein J, Kuehas F, Herwig R, Ayati M, Lepor H, Djavan B. Gene polymorphisms and prostate cancer: the evidence 2009 BJUI: 104 1560-1572

Elo JP and Visakorpi T.  Molecular genetics of prostate cancer. Ann Med 2001;33(2):130-41

Johns LE, Houlston RS. A systematic review and meta-analysis of familial prostate cancer risk. BJU International 2003; 91: 789-794.

Ethnicity
Ben-Shlomo Y, Evans S, Ibrahim F, et al  The Risk of Prostate Cancer amongst Black Men in the United Kingdom: The PROCESS Cohort Study. Eur Urol 2008; 53(1):99-105

Metcalfe C, Evans S, Ibrahim F, Patel B, Anson K, Chinegwundoh F, Corbishley C, Gillatt D, Kirby R, Muir G, Nargund V, Popert R, Persad R, Ben-Shlomo Y. Pathways to diagnosis for black men and white men found to have prostate cancer: the PROCESS cohort study. British Journal of Cancer (2008)

Diet
Allen NE, Key TJ, Appleby PN et al. Animal foods, protein, calcium and prostate cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Br J Cancer. 2008 May 6;98(9):1574-81.

Gao X, LaValley MP, Tucker KL. Prospective Studies of dairy product and calcium intakes and prostate cancer risk: A meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97(23):1768-77

Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Platz EA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Risk factors for prostate cancer incidence and progression in the health professionals follow-up study. Int.J Cancer 2007; 121 (7):1571-8

Ma RW, Chapman K.  A systematic review of the effect of diet in prostate cancer prevention and treatment.  Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics : the Official Journal of the British Dietetic Association 2009, 22(3):187-99

Orsini N, Bellocco R, Bottai M, Pagano M, Andersson SO, Johansson JE, Giovannucci E, Wolk A. A prospective study of lifetime physical activity and prostate cancer incidence and mortality Br J Cancer. 2009 Dec 1;101(11):1932-8. Epub 2009 Oct 27.

World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective. Washington DC:AICR, 2007

Visiting your GP

Before you have a PSA test
Price CP, Allard J, Davies G, Dawnay A, Duffy MJ, France M, Mandarino G, Ward AM, Patel B, Sibley P, Sturgeon C. Pre- and post-analytical factors that may influence the use of serum prostate specific antigen and its isoforms in a screening programme for prostate cancer. Ann Clin Biochem 2001; 38: 188-216.

Prostate Cancer Risk Management Programme information for primary care: PSA testing in asymptomatic men. Evidence document January 2010

Digital rectal examination (DRE)
Prostate Cancer Risk Management Programme information for primary care; PSA testing in asymptomatic men. Evidence document January 2010

Seeing a specialist

TRUS guided biopsy
PCRMP Guide no1. Undertaking a transrectal ultrasound guided biopsy of the prostate. Dec 2006

What are the disadvantages of having a biopsy?
Eichler K, Hempel S, Wilby J, Myers L, Bachmann LM, Kleijnen J. Diagnostic value of systematic prostate biopsy methods in the investigation for prostate cancer: a systematic review. Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, University of York; 2005.

Making a decision

Draisma G, Boer R, Otto SJ, van der Cruijsen IW, Damhuis RA, Schröder FH, de Koning HJ. Lead times and overdetection due to prostate-specific antigen screening: estimates from the European Randomized Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003; 95(12): 868-878.

Etzioni R, Penson DF, Legler JM, di Tommaso D, Boer R, Gann PH, Feuer EJ. Overdiagnosis due to prostate-specific antigen screening: lessons from US prostate cancer incidence trends. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002; 94: 981-990.

Prostate Cancer Risk Management Programme information for primary care; PSA testing in asymptomatic men. Evidence document January 2010

Selley S, Donovan J, Faulkner A, Coast J, Gillatt D. Diagnosis, management and screening of early localised prostate cancer. Health Technol Assess 1997;1(2):i, 1-i,96.

Stamey TA, Caldwell M, McNeal JE, Nolley R, Hemenez M, Downs J. The prostate specific antigen era in the United States is over for prostate cancer: what happened in the last 20 years? J Urol. 2004; 172: 1297-301.

Yao SL, Lu-Yao G. Understanding and appreciating overdiagnosis in the PSA era. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002; 94: 958-960.

Why is there no screening programme for all men?

Schröder FH, Hugosson J, Roobol MJ, Tammela TL, Ciatto S, Nelen V, Kwiatkowski M, Lujan M, Lilja H, Zappa M, Denis LJ, Recker F, Berenguer A, Määttänen L, Bangma CH, Aus G, Villers A, Rebillard X, van der Kwast T, Blijenberg BG, Moss SM, de Koning HJ, Auvinen A. Screening and prostate-cancer mortality in a randomized European study N Engl J Med. 2009 Mar 26;360(13):1320-8. Epub 2009 Mar 18.

Other tests

Catalone W J, Partin AW, SLawin KM, et al. Use of percentage of free prostate-specific antigen to enhance differentiaion of prostate cancer from benign prostatic disease: a prospective multicenter clinical trial. JAMA 1998; 279: 1542-7

Froehner M, Buck L M, Koch R, Hakenburg O W, Wirth M P. Derivatives of prostate specific antigen as predictors of incidental prostate cancer. BJUI 2009 104, 25-28
Noguerira L, Corradi R, Eastham J. Other biomarkers for detecting prostate cancer. BJUI 2009 105, 166-169

Schilling D, de Reijke T, Tombal B, de la Taille A, Hennenlotter J, Stenzl A. The Prostate Cancer gene 3 assay: indications for use in clinical practice. BJU I 2009 105, 452-455


Schilling D, de Reijke T, Tombal B, de la Taille A, Hennenlotter J, Stenzl A Follow-up of men with an elevated PCA3 score and a negative biopsy: does an elevated PCA3 score indeed predict the presence of prostate cancer? BJU Int. 2010 Feb;105(4):452-5.